12/6/2011 Water for Dimock #2 — Dr. Stephen Cleghorn advocates compassion and non-violence in the fight against frack
The 12/6/2011 Water for Dimock #2 — Dr. Stephen Cleghorn by the producer of this video, unless otherwise expressly stated, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials.[1] As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly—once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.
Biochemical conversion
A microbial electrolysis cell can be used to directly make hydrogen gas from plant matter
As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these biochemical conversion processes can be harnessed.
Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other micro-organisms to break down biomass. In most cases micro-organisms are used to perform the conversion process: anaerobic digestion, fermentation and composting. Other chemical processes such as converting straight and waste vegetable oils into biodiesel is transesterification.[28] Another way of breaking down biomass is by breaking down the carbohydrates and simple sugars to make alcohol. However, this process has not been perfected yet. Scientists are still researching the effects of converting biomass.
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Historically, humans have harnessed biomass derived energy products since the time when people began burning wood to make fire.[2] In modern times, the term can be referred to in two meanings. In the first sense, biomass is plant matter used either to generate electricity (via steam turbines or gasifiers), or to produce heat (via direct combustion). Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today;[2] examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[3] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
The adoption of biomass-based energy plants has been a slow but steady process. Over the past decade, the production of these plants has increased 14%.[4] In the United States, alternative electricity-production sources on the whole generate about 13% of power; of this fraction, biomass contributes approximately 11% of the alternative production.[5] According to a study conducted in early 2012, of the 107 operating biomass plants in the United States, 85 have been cited by federal or state regulators for the violation of clean air or water standards laws over the past 5 years. This data also includes minor infractions.[4]
Biomass-derived energy also holds the promise of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, a significant contributor to global warming, as carbon dioxide acts as a “greenhouse” gas by trapping heat absorbed by the earth from the sun. Although the burning of biomass energy releases as much carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, biomass burning does not release “new carbon” into the atmosphere while burning fossil fuels does.[6] This is because carbon dioxide released from fossil fuels was carbon that was fixated via photosynthesis millions of years ago that had been locked in the hydrocarbons of fossil fuels.[6]
Industry professionals claim that a range of issues can affect a plant’s ability to comply with emissions standards. Some of these challenges, unique to biomass plants, include inconsistent fuel supplies and age. The type and amount of the fuel supply is completely reliant factors; the fuel can be in the form of building debris or agricultural waste (such as deforestation of invasive species or orchard trimmings). Furthermore, many of the biomass plants are old, use outdated technology and were not built to comply with today’s stringent standards. In fact, many are based on technologies developed during the term of President Jimmy Carter, who created the Department of Energy in 1977.[2]
The Energy Information Administration projected that by 2017, biomass is expected to be about twice as expensive as natural gas, slightly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less expensive than solar panels.[7] In another EIA study released, concerning the government’s plan to implement a 25% renewable energy standard by 2025, the agency assumed that 598 million tons of biomass would be available, accounting for 12% of the renewable energy in the plan.[8]
Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 146 billion tons a year, consisting of mostly wild plant growth.[9] Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels.
Wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass (second generation biofuels) as fuel. This is either using harvested wood directly as a fuel, or collecting from wood waste streams. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or “black liquor,” a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
Waste energy is the second-largest source of biomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the U.S., where waste-to-energy power plants generate enough electricity to supply 1.3 million homes.[10]
Sugars and oils (first generation biofuels), such as sugarcane and corn, are used to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel. Alcohol fuels can be used directly, like other fuels, or as an additive to gasoline.[11] Second generation biofuels are less simple to extract or process,[12] while first generation biofuels are more prone to escalating the Food vs. Fuel dilemma.[13][14]
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield 7.5-8 tons of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5-5 tons per hectare.[15] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel. The use of plants as a biofuel source not only provides sustainability but also a way to reduce a major greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide.[16]
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas—also called “landfill gas” or “biogas.” Crops, such as corn and sugar cane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[17] Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[18][19]
There is a great deal of research involving algal biomass due to the fact that it’s a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, mainly corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen.[20] Algal biomass may be produced commercially for this specific purpose or as a byproduct of nutrient removal systems like the Algal Turf Scrubber used to re-oxygenate aquatic dead zones and waste water treatment. Efforts are being made to identify which species of algae are most suitable for energy production. Genetic engineering approaches could also be utilized to improve microalgae as a source of biofuel.[21]
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region.[22] Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States.[22] Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks).[22] Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK.[22]
Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 146 billion tons a year, consisting of mostly wild plant growth.[9] Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels.
Wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass (second generation biofuels) as fuel. This is either using harvested wood directly as a fuel, or collecting from wood waste streams. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or “black liquor,” a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
Waste energy is the second-largest source of biomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the U.S., where waste-to-energy power plants generate enough electricity to supply 1.3 million homes.[10]
Sugars and oils (first generation biofuels), such as sugarcane and corn, are used to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel. Alcohol fuels can be used directly, like other fuels, or as an additive to gasoline.[11] Second generation biofuels are less simple to extract or process,[12] while first generation biofuels are more prone to escalating the Food vs. Fuel dilemma.[13][14]
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield 7.5-8 tons of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5-5 tons per hectare.[15] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel. The use of plants as a biofuel source not only provides sustainability but also a way to reduce a major greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide.[16]
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas—also called “landfill gas” or “biogas.” Crops, such as corn and sugar cane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[17] Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[18][19]
There is a great deal of research involving algal biomass due to the fact that it’s a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, mainly corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen.[20] Algal biomass may be produced commercially for this specific purpose or as a byproduct of nutrient removal systems like the Algal Turf Scrubber used to re-oxygenate aquatic dead zones and waste water treatment. Efforts are being made to identify which species of algae are most suitable for energy production. Genetic engineering approaches could also be utilized to improve microalgae as a source of biofuel.[21]
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region.[22] Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States.[22] Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks).[22] Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK.[22]
Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 146 billion tons a year, consisting of mostly wild plant growth.[9] Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels.
Wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass (second generation biofuels) as fuel. This is either using harvested wood directly as a fuel, or collecting from wood waste streams. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or “black liquor,” a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
Waste energy is the second-largest source of biomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the U.S., where waste-to-energy power plants generate enough electricity to supply 1.3 million homes.[10]
Sugars and oils (first generation biofuels), such as sugarcane and corn, are used to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel. Alcohol fuels can be used directly, like other fuels, or as an additive to gasoline.[11] Second generation biofuels are less simple to extract or process,[12] while first generation biofuels are more prone to escalating the Food vs. Fuel dilemma.[13][14]
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield 7.5-8 tons of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5-5 tons per hectare.[15] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel. The use of plants as a biofuel source not only provides sustainability but also a way to reduce a major greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide.[16]
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas—also called “landfill gas” or “biogas.” Crops, such as corn and sugar cane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[17] Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[18][19]
There is a great deal of research involving algal biomass due to the fact that it’s a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, mainly corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen.[20] Algal biomass may be produced commercially for this specific purpose or as a byproduct of nutrient removal systems like the Algal Turf Scrubber used to re-oxygenate aquatic dead zones and waste water treatment. Efforts are being made to identify which species of algae are most suitable for energy production. Genetic engineering approaches could also be utilized to improve microalgae as a source of biofuel.[21]
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region.[22] Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States.[22] Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks).[22] Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK.[22]
The biomass power generating industry in the United States, which consists of approximately 11,000 MW of summer operating capacity actively supplying power to the grid, produces about 1.4 percent of the U.S. electricity supply.[29]
Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the largest biomass power plant in North America. The 140 MW facility uses sugar cane fiber (bagasse) and recycled urban wood as fuel to generate enough power for its large milling and refining operations as well as to supply renewable electricity for nearly 60,000 homes. The facility reduces dependence on oil by more than one million barrels per year, and by recycling sugar cane and wood waste, preserves landfill space in urban communities in Florida.[30][31]
Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas.[32][33][34] Black carbon – a pollutant created by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass – is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[35] In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil-fuel burning.[36] Researchers measured a significant concentration of 14C, which is associated with recent plant life rather than with fossil fuels.[37]
Biomass systems can reduce waste energy from 66% to 25% compared to traditional fossil fuels [38][disputed – discuss], meaning a significantly smaller amount of input material (biomass) is used, therefore having a positive effect on the global environment and use of fuel. In addition, modern biomass systems utilise biomass sources such as energy crops with a 1 year lifecycle, meaning that (carbon) emissions are able to be recycled within 1 year following their emission – considerably better than the millions of years needed to recycle coal or nuclear materials. The same modern biomass systems use filters. These filters capture carbon and other pollutants before they enter the atmosphere. Thus in the biomass lifecycle, the pollutants are captured by trees and crops, they are burnt, pollutants are captured and less are released back into the environment.[citation needed] Any pollutants released are then re-absored by trees and plants. Consequently, each burning cycle can significantly lower the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere and the biomass unit acts like a large cleaning unit for the planet.[citation needed]
Biomass power plant size is often driven by biomass availability in close proximity as transport costs of the (bulky) fuel play a key factor in the plant’s economics. It has to be noted, however, that rail and especially shipping on waterways can reduce transport costs significantly, which has led to a global biomass market.[39] To make small plants of 1 MWel economically profitable those power plants have need to be equipped with technology that is able to convert biomass to useful electricity with high efficiency such as ORC technology, a cycle similar to the water steam power process just with an organic working medium. Such small power plants can be found in Europe.[40] [41][42][43]
On combustion, the carbon from biomass is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). The amount of carbon stored in dry wood is approximately 50% by weight.[44] However, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, plant matter used as a fuel can be replaced by planting for new growth. When the biomass is from forests, the time to recapture the carbon stored is generally longer, and the carbon storage capacity of the forest may be reduced overall if destructive forestry techniques are employed.[45][46][47][48]
Despite harvesting, biomass crops may sequester carbon. For example, soil organic carbon has been observed to be greater in switchgrass stands than in cultivated cropland soil, especially at depths below 12 inches.[49] The grass sequesters the carbon in its increased root biomass. Typically, perennial crops sequester much more carbon than annual crops due to much greater non-harvested living biomass, both living and dead, built up over years, and much less soil disruption in cultivation.
The biomass-is-carbon-neutral proposal put forward in the early 1990s has been superseded by more recent science that recognizes that mature, intact forests sequester carbon more effectively than cut-over areas. When a tree’s carbon is released into the atmosphere in a single pulse, it contributes to climate change much more than woodland timber rotting slowly over decades. Current studies indicate that “even after 50 years the forest has not recovered to its initial carbon storage” and “the optimal strategy is likely to be protection of the standing forest”.[50][not in citation given][51][52]
Forest-based biomass has recently come under fire from a number of environmental organizations, including Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council, for the harmful impacts it can have on forests and the climate. Greenpeace recently released a report entitled “Fuelling a BioMess”[53] which outlines their concerns around forest-based biomass. Because any part of the tree can be burned, the harvesting of trees for energy production encourages Whole-Tree Harvesting, which removes more nutrients and soil cover than regular harvesting, and can be harmful to the long-term health of the forest. In some jurisdictions, forest biomass is increasingly consisting of elements essential to functioning forest ecosystems, including standing trees, naturally disturbed forests and remains of traditional logging operations that were previously left in the forest. Environmental groups also cite recent scientific research which has found that it can take many decades for the carbon released by burning biomass to be recaptured by regrowing trees, and even longer in low productivity areas; furthermore, logging operations may disturb forest soils and cause them to release stored carbon. In light of the pressing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the short term in order to mitigate the effects of climate change, a number of environmental groups are opposing the large-scale use of forest biomass in energy production